Chen Guying: The Contemporary Value of Laozi and Zhuangzi's Thought

The German scholar Karl Jaspers, in his book The Great Philosophers, while discussing the uniqueness of Laozi's thought, specifically pointed out: "From a world-historical perspective, Laozi's greatness is tied to the Chinese spirit." He further noted: "Like all the greatest philosophers in human society, Laozi did not confine his thought to what was already known, but captured the source of his reflections from the all-encompassing. His thought, which extends to the deepest realms, can truly be described as all-encompassing." He also wrote: "Laozi's Dao is the deepest tranquility reached by transcending all limitations, while the limitations themselves, as long as they are real and present, are also filled with the Dao. This philosophical thinking thus lives within the world and enters the root of the world." (Karl Jaspers, The Great Philosophers, Social Sciences Academic Press, November 2012, p. 780). Laozi's thought not only enters the root of the world but also lives among humanity. For over 2,500 years, Laozi's thought has been like an inexhaustible spring, nourishing the spirit and enlightening the wisdom of people from different eras and social strata. This is because Laozi's thought contains timeless values that only grow more relevant with age.

The "Virtue of Water" as Expressed in "The Highest Good is Like Water"

Laozi uses "water" as a metaphor for the Dao. Chapter 8 of the Laozi (also known as the Daodejing) states:

The highest good is like water.
Water excels in benefiting all things without striving.
It dwells in places that others despise,
Thus it is close to the Dao.

In dwelling, be good with the land.
In the mind, be good with depth.
In giving, be good with benevolence.
In speaking, be good with trustworthiness.
In governing, be good with order.
In affairs, be good with ability.
In action, be good with timing.

Because it does not strive, it is without fault.

This chapter comprehensively introduces the virtue of water. Water is highly regarded in Daoist philosophy. One could even argue that Daoism uses water as the symbol of its own character and temperament. For example, Confucianism uses jade to represent the gentleman as "warm and refined like jade," while Buddhism uses the lotus, which rises unsullied from the mud, to represent the non-duality of worldly engagement and spiritual transcendence. Daoism, in turn, takes water as the exemplar of its moral spirit. Water embodies the temperament of the Daoist spirit.

We all know the phrase "the highest good is like water." But where does water's "highest good" manifest itself?

First, it excels in benefiting all things without contending with them: "The imagery of water spreading everywhere and unconsciously giving life to all things is clearly evident in the Laozi. The text says 'the highest good is like water,' where water is equated with the Dao and is called the 'highest good.'" (Sarah Allan, The Way of Water and the Sprout of Virtue: The Root Metaphor in Early Chinese Philosophical Thought, Commercial Press, November 2010, p. 35). Second, water remains in lowly places. It goes where others are unwilling to go; it does what others are unwilling to do. So too is the Dao.

Next, the chapter lists seven virtues of water:

1. Excellence in choosing where to dwell. Water is fluid. Entering a round container, it becomes round; entering a square container, it becomes square. When obstructed, it stops and waits; when able to proceed, it moves forward; when the direct path is blocked, it goes around.

2. The mind excels in maintaining depth and stillness. Water's mind is calm, tranquil, clear, and pure, reflecting the sun, moon, and sky, responding to the seasons of rain and shine. It is unhurried, unruffled, natural, and composed.

3. Giving with benevolence and true kindness. Water is adept at loving others with benevolence and virtue. This shows that Laozi advocated benevolence (ren) and did not oppose it. The earliest known occurrence of the character ren (仁) appears in the "Metal-Bound Coffer" chapter of the Book of Documents: "My benevolence matches that of the former king." This indicates that the concept of ren existed as early as the early Western Zhou dynasty, long before the era of Laozi and Confucius. The Book of Songs also mentions ren twice, referring to warmth, kindness, and compassion.

4. Excellence in being trustworthy. Although water is free of desires, tranquil, reserved, and flows naturally, it has a steadfast goal: to flow towards the sea. It never abandons this goal, no matter how many bends or dangerous shoals it encounters, no matter how long it takes. It remains committed and true to its word.

5. In governance, excellence in simplicity and effectiveness. Water requires no elaborate adornment, no added colors or flavors. It handles matters in the most minimal, essential way.

6. Excellence in leveraging its abilities. Playing to strengths and avoiding weaknesses is water's style.

7. In action, excellence in seizing the right time.

These are the "Seven Virtues of Water." If we can carefully appreciate them and learn from water, they will greatly benefit each of us.

Since modern times, traditional Chinese culture has faced numerous challenges and tests. Most contemporary Chinese people are unfamiliar with their own classical texts, especially our young people. If we ask a young person if they have read the Daodejing, many would answer, "No, I haven't." In fact, the ancient Daodejing holds strong contemporary value and can offer profound life guidance to young people.

Laozi's Concept of "Moving with Good Timing" (Dong Shan Shi)

A very important concept in Laozi's thought is shi (time, timing, circumstances).

The seventh of the seven virtues of water is precisely "excellence in action by seizing the right time" (dong shan shi). This is extremely significant. Whether in the Laozi, the Zhuangzi, or the Book of Changes (I Ching), emphasis is placed on this shi. Confucius was called by Mencius "the sage of timeliness." This shows that both Confucianism and Daoism greatly value shi.

The concept of shi appears only once in the Laozi, in Chapter 8, as dong shan shi (動善時), meaning that action should seize the right moment. The idea of shi is very important in Chinese culture. When making decisions, whether to act or be still, advance or retreat, use or discard, go forward or stay hidden – the key lies in shi. In the Laozi, water understands shi: it acts when it should act and stops when it should stop.

In the Zhuangzi, shi appears over forty times, often brilliantly employed. Zhuangzi uses the phrases: "Now a dragon, now a snake, transforming with the times," and "Now above, now below, taking harmony as the measure." The dragon and snake, one visible and one hidden, emphasize mastering the right moment. Whether rising or falling, advancing or retreating, harmony is the standard. Thus, the dynamic relationship between movement and stillness based on shi – whether one seizes the right moment or not – carries significant consequences, making it crucial. In the "Mountain Tree" chapter of the Zhuangzi, two stories are told. One concerns a tree that survives to a ripe old age because it is useless (not suitable for timber). The other concerns a guest's host who kills a goose that cannot cackle to serve for dinner, precisely because it is useless. The disciple asks Zhuangzi: Yesterday the mountain tree died a natural death due to its uselessness; today the host's goose was killed due to its uselessness. Master, should one be useful or useless? Zhuangzi replies that it is best to be somewhere between useful and useless – to walk the middle path.

Huang-Lao Daoism also highly valued shi. For example, the Jixia Daoist text Guanzi, in the "White Heart" chapter, opens with: "Establish what is right and proper, take tranquility as the foundation, take timeliness as the treasure, take governance as the standard, and harmony will lead to longevity." The "Uniting the Seasons" chapter of Guanzi already states: "Act when the time is right; be still when it is not." Therefore, shi holds great importance in Daoist philosophy.

Laozi's "moving with good timing" shares a direct lineage with the Book of Changes' precept: "Movement and stillness do not lose their proper time." Shi is an extremely important value concept and behavioral guideline in the Book of Changes. This shi is not merely a simple temporal concept but refers to the situation or objective circumstances formed by a combination of external conditions, encompassing aspects like time-state, opportunity, and fortune. Does one's action align with the present situation? In this time-state, can one act in step with the times and understand current affairs? Judging and deciding one's actions based on this is precisely "moving with good timing." The "Tuan Commentary" to the Book of Changes emphasizes: "Diminish, increase, be full, be empty – move in step with the times." Knowing when to diminish and when to increase depends on judging fullness and emptiness and making adjustments accordingly. This virtue is the ultimate test of a decision-maker's quality and ability. It requires adapting to local conditions, seizing the right moment, responding to circumstances, possessing foresight, and making appropriate changes based on the situation. This virtue permeates and governs the previous six. Using it to regulate and assist the other six is an ability acquired only through long-term learning and practice. Mastering shi can be described as: "The subtlety of its application lies entirely in the heart and mind."

Mutual Nourishment of Movement and Stillness, Interpenetration of Emptiness and Fullness

The Laozi places significant emphasis on the interplay of hardness and softness. Concepts within Laozi's thought such as "the interpenetration of emptiness and fullness," "the mutual nourishment of movement and stillness," "the advancing path seeming to retreat," "fortune and misfortune leaning on each other," "being and non-being giving rise to each other," and "yin and yang harmonizing" can guide and help us face life's ups and downs, expanding our minds. The poet Wang Wei wrote: "At the end of the water path, I sit and watch the rising clouds." Adopting such a detached and optimistic perspective towards all we encounter and experience, no difficulty in life becomes insurmountable. As the saying goes, "After countless mountains and rivers leaving no path, suddenly appears a village amidst willows and blooming flowers." Laozi often expresses his views in paradoxical statements – "straight words seem reversed." Sometimes you need to look from the opposite perspective or take a long-term view: "Reversal is the movement of the Dao." Sometimes you need to turn a corner: "By being bent, you become whole."

Chapter 15 of the Laozi asks: "Who can muddy the turbidity, yet through stillness gradually become clear? Who can secure tranquility, yet through movement gradually bring forth life?" Laozi describes the self-cultivation of one who embodies the Dao. "Turbidity" represents a state of agitation. Through the practice of "stillness," the practitioner nurtures themselves with tranquility, steadies their mind, and transitions into a state of clarity, demonstrating a life process where extreme movement leads to stillness. Conversely, from prolonged calm and stability, the practitioner can stir, tending towards creative activity, revealing another life process where extreme stillness leads to movement. The interplay between movement and stillness reveals the dialectical thinking of "mutual nourishment of movement and stillness." The famous German philosopher Martin Heidegger greatly admired this concept in the Laozi. He asked someone to write these two sentences down and hung them on the wall of his mountain retreat's study.

Chapter 3 of the Laozi states: "Empty the mind, fill the belly. Weaken the ambitions, strengthen the bones." Here, "emptiness" (xu) means vast and open. "Emptying the mind" teaches open-mindedness. Xu is an important method for self-cultivation and understanding, consistent with Laozi's metaphysical concept of wu (non-being). Chapter 16's "Attain the ultimate emptiness, hold steadfastly to stillness" describes the expansive mental state achieved through cultivation. This state of clarity, cleared of subjective desires and biases, is also the path to knowing the Dao. The pairing of xu (emptiness) and shi (fullness/solidity) in "Empty the mind, fill the belly" became a fundamental pair of categories in Chinese philosophy, developing into the important proposition of the "interpenetration of emptiness and fullness." For example, the Four Classics of the Yellow Emperor states: "Only by knowing the reality within emptiness can one then attain great emptiness." Later, through developments in the Wei-Jin and Song-Ming periods, reaching the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, Wang Fuzhi proposed ideas like "Reality does not obstruct emptiness" and "Within emptiness, all is reality," more concretely explaining the dialectical relationship of mutual interaction between xu and shi. Grasping the meaning of "the interpenetration of emptiness and fullness" would greatly benefit the self-cultivation practices and spiritual realm of us modern people.

Historical Continuity and Temporal Relevance

Chinese history, from antiquity to the present, involves both constants and changes. The intrinsic historical continuity is the constant; temporal relevance is the change. Chapter 14 of the Laozi points out the historical continuity of "holding onto the ancient Dao to manage the present":

Hold onto the Dao of antiquity to manage the realities of the present.
Being able to know the ancient beginning – this is called the thread of the Dao. (Chapter 14)

"Holding onto the ancient to manage the present" in this chapter and "From the present back to antiquity" in Chapter 21 both possess historical and contemporary significance. Consider, for example, the relationship between the Six Classics and Laozi and Confucius. Confucius edited the Six Classics as teaching materials. Based on understanding the historical meaning of ancient texts, he pondered how to respond to the real issues of his era. This constitutes a concrete application of "holding onto the ancient to manage the present." Moreover, Confucius was not alone in this practice. The Book of Songs, Book of Documents, and Book of Changes also had a subtle influence on Laozi, particularly the close relationship between the I Ching and Laozi's dialectical thinking. Both Laozi and Confucius, through reflecting upon and learning from history, revealed their penetrating insight and wisdom.

Chapter 21 of the Laozi importantly echoes Chapter 14:

The appearance of great virtue follows solely the Dao.
As a thing, the Dao is elusive and evasive.
Elusive and evasive, yet within it is form.
Evasive and elusive, yet within it is substance.
Deep and dark, yet within it is essence.
Its essence is very real; within it is trustworthiness.
From the present back to antiquity, its name never departs, serving as a guide for all things.
How do I know the condition of all things? By this.

Chapter 14 spoke of "holding onto the ancient to manage the present," while this chapter speaks of "from the present back to antiquity." The two chapters echo each other. Contrasting this with Western thought, Professor Thome H. Fang noted: "The tradition of Chinese philosophy, from the Pre-Qin period through the Han, Tang, Song, and Ming dynasties, shares a common point. This common point, to use Sima Qian's words, is 'investigating the relationship between Heaven and humanity.' On the other hand, unlike Western thought, which often centers on the individual forming a unique system, Chinese philosophy... again in Sima Qian's words, 'understands the changes of the past and present.' This 'understanding the changes of past and present' means that all philosophical thought – whether individual, school-based, or originating in any era – must express this 'historical continuity,' must echo and interconnect with the philosophical developments of other schools, forming a temporal, holistic relationship. There is absolutely no such thing as an isolated system of thought." (Thome H. Fang, Eighteen Lectures on Neo-Confucianism). Thus, we see in Chapter 21 the holistic temporal connection in Chinese philosophy, devoid of isolated thought systems.

What is philosophy? Its fundamental concern lies in exploring the relationship between Heaven and humanity, and between past and present. Borrowing Sima Qian's phrase, it is "investigating the relationship between Heaven and humanity, and understanding the changes of the past and present." Laozi's statement, "Hold onto the Dao of antiquity to manage the realities of the present," emphasizes the relationship between past and present. One must understand both the constants and the changes, hence the discussion of historical continuity and temporal relevance. Constants and changes are opposites that complement each other. Therefore, we need both cultural inheritance (a conscious cultural subjectivity) and adaptation to the times through innovation.

Multi-dimensional Perspectives vs. Single-Dimensional Thinking

Multi-dimensional perspectives – viewing issues from multiple angles – is a concept proposed by Nietzsche. Looking back from Nietzsche to Zhuangzi two thousand years earlier, we find that Zhuangzi also viewed problems from multiple perspectives. For instance, Zhuangzi's "Discussion on Making All Things Equal" states: "Paths are made by walking on them. Things are called what they are called. Why are they thus? They are thus because they are declared thus. Why are they not thus? They are not thus because they are declared not thus. Things inherently have their 'thus-ness'; things inherently have their 'acceptable-ness.' Nothing is not 'thus,' nothing is not 'acceptable'... 'Grotesque, strange, deceitful, and weird' – the Dao connects them as one." "Grotesque, strange, deceitful, and weird" signifies that every person has their uniqueness, their distinctiveness, their strengths. We should appreciate others' strengths and dismantle the arrogance and prejudice rooted in individual ego-centrism, clan ego-centrism, or even national ego-centrism.

Throughout human history, many philosophical schools have tended toward single-dimensional lines of thought and unidirectional perspectives. Laozi and Zhuangzi's Daoism, conversely, approached problems from multi-dimensional, holistic, and differing perspectives. This issue remains highly significant in philosophy. Within our global village, many historical and contemporary examples can serve as references for discussing this issue. The global village comprises different cultures, nations, and value orientations. We need to rethink this single-dimensionality using multi-dimensional perspectives.

Currently, our country advocates for a community with a shared future for mankind. To build such a community, we necessarily need open, inclusive, and mutually co-existing thinking. This reminds us that in the present era, the global village should set aside various prejudices and unilateral thinking, moving beyond considerations based solely on self-interest or one's own cultural perspective. We should open our minds and hearts. Chapter 61 of the Laozi says: "The great state treats the small state with deference, and thus wins the small state. The small state treats the great state with deference, and thus wins the great state... Both get what they desire." This means shifting perspective to view international relations.

In our time, if we cannot form such a shared community, given the rapid development of technology where humanity possesses weapons capable of destroying the Earth many times over, and with humanity wielding immense technological and military power, we need the softness of culture to integrate and mitigate the hardness of technology. This is what Laozi means by "I will subdue it with the nameless uncarved block." What can subdue or mitigate it? Use the "nameless uncarved block" – use simplicity, naturalness, returning to one's original heart-mind, to achieve harmony, gentleness, and the benefit of all things.

Only with such perspectives and cultural breadth can we truly offer a shared future for humanity. Otherwise, if humanity lacks this wisdom and continues fighting as we do, it may bring about even greater disasters. This is an era requiring our awakening.

Zhuangzi's "Discussion on Making All Things Equal" also fully demonstrates multi-dimensional perspectives. Zhuangzi not only presents ideas of "heavenly harmony," "human harmony," and "heart-mind harmony," but also advocates for "heavenly joy," "human joy," and "heart-mind joy." Our Laozi-Zhuangzi thought possesses such inherent cultural genes, cultural functions, and multi-dimensional perspectives. This harmonious cultural character can bring harmony and well-being to all humanity.

(Author: Chen Guying, Chair Professor of Humanities at Peking University)

This article was published in Guangming Daily, December 21, 2024, Page 11.